Assignments Essay

Pick one researcher engaged with defining the cutting edge occasional table and portray why their work made a critical commitment to the advancement of the intermittent table. Dmitri Mendeleev’s commitment to the cutting edge intermittent table is generally eminent throughout the entire existence of concoction science. Mendeleev was the maker of the intermittent table; organizing 63 realized components arranged by their nuclear mass. His disclosure had a noteworthy effect in the advancement of the intermittent table as it set the establishment for additional advancement to happen later on. Dmitri Mendeleev foreseen the presence of new components to be found, along these lines leaving holes in the rising request of components. Mendeleev was the outstanding pioneer of isotopes and uncommon gasses. In rundown, science is a mix of rationale and creative mind and Mendeleev exhibited these characteristics through building up the occasional table (Western Oregon University, 2012). Dmitri Mendeleev’s making of the occasional table was viewed as perhaps the best triumph in science history as it took into consideration further investigation to start. For what reason do you think the improvement of the occasional table required contribution from a scope of various individuals? The same number of know, the improvement of the intermittent table required various researchers, for example, John Newlands and Julius Lothar Mieyer. Notwithstanding these men, Mendeleev’s table would not be as exact as it is today. As time advanced, innovation progressed scientists’ found honorable gasses and decided every component nuclear number. Numerous researchers assumed a fundamental job in building up our cutting edge occasional table as every individual had an alternate information and comprehension of science. To close, the occasional table was never one man’s revelation, however the consequence of various scientists’ investigations and experimentations. Each had an essential influence in testing/affirming the hypotheses of their forerunners, perceiving various examples and properties between various components. How did upgrades in innovation impact the improvement of the intermittent table? With the improvement in innovation from the 1800’s through to introduce day the advancement of the occasional table has experienced huge changes. Since the improvement of the table by Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, researchers have used new advances to deliver an increasingly exact portrayal of the concoction components. Researchers, for example, William Ramsay, who found honorable gasses, definitely changed the intermittent table including an entirely different gathering. In 1913, Henry Mosely altogether influenced the occasional table with his disclosure of atomic charge. At last, the most mechanical change is credited to Glen Seaborg in 1940. His work on the revelation of nuclear number reconfigured the occasional table, granting him the honorable prize in science in 1951. Without innovative headways, for example, atomic reactors, telescope and the synthetic bonds framework (Alexander Crum Brow)). Seaborg potentially would not have had the option to find what he did. In synopsis, the headway in innovation has critically modified Mendeleev’s unique intermittent table and will in all probability proceed with new manufactured components being included. Quickly portray data we presently have about iotas that was not accessible to before researchers who were recognizing examples and patterns inside early forms of the intermittent table. What patterns would they be able to see, contrasted with what we presently know? In the twentieth Century, researchers have a more noteworthy comprehension of molecules and the examples they follow contrasted with the individuals who created the early forms of the intermittent table. It was noted in the mid 1800’s, that issue comprised of knotty particles called iotas. Towards the century's end, J. J Thompson found electrons and their negative charge. He estimated that molecules would along these lines contain positive charged particles. In 1869, researchers started to perceived examples in properties beginning from various known components, in the long run building up the order strategies. During the early forms of the occasional table, it was controlled by Henry Mosely to mastermind components arranged by their nuclear number. This example followed the occasional table idea more precisely than the plan of nuclear weight. Another striking pattern began from glen Seaborg in the 1940’s. Seaborg misleadingly created new substantial mass components, for example, neptunium and plutonium. Accordingly making another square in the table called ‘antinides’. To finish up our insight into molecules, their structure and examples they structure in the intermittent table beginning from the eighteenth century has created. Paper Part This exposition will give an away from into the component of chlorine. It will remember detail for the historical backdrop of chlorine, its’ structure, position on the occasional table and the particles shaped. The component of Chlorine was found very early contrasted with numerous different components. Carl Wilhelm Scheele originally delivered the component in 1774 in Sweden. Scheele went over this component subsequent to joining the mineral pyrolusite and hydrochloric corrosive together. He found this new gas responded with metals, broke up marginally in water and dyed blossoms and leaves. From the start, Scheele accepted that the gas created was oxygen, anyway Sir Humphry Davy demonstrated in 1810 that this gas was new. Sir Davy at that point proceeded to name the new substance Chlorine after the Greek word (Chloros) which means greenish yellow. Chlorine’s component structure is like different components that are arranged in the incandescent light gathering on the intermittent table. This component involves a nuclear number of 17 and weight of 35. 5. Chlorine is known to be a very responsive gas hence giving reasons regarding why it legitimately joins with most of different components aside from the honorable gasses. This component is orchestrated into three shells. The initial two shells are loaded up with electrons. In the mean time the third contains just seven electrons. Chlorine is a normally happening component, emerging in the Earth’s outside layer and seawater. It’s plenitude in the Earth is around 100-300 sections for every million (Chemistry Explained, 2013). This component is extensively notable to be a thick gas, containing a thickness rating of 3. 21g per liter. Chlorine is a serious solid oxidizing specialist. As it were, it is infamous for taking on electrons from different substances. By the by, the component chlorine’s explicit component structure directs regarding why it is situated inside the incandescent lamp gathering. Chlorine has been explicitly situated inside the occasional table arranged in bunch 17 since it has a place with the incandescent lamp family. It is known to be the second lightest component in the incandescent lamp gathering. Chlorine is arranged in this gathering since it contains comparable synthetic properties to other halogen relatives. Some synthetic and physical properties of these components are; that are exceptionally receptive, they contain seven valence electrons, they are poor conductors and they are weak when strong. Chlorine has a softening purpose of - 100. 98Â °Cand a breaking point of - 34. Â °C. Chlorine is heavier than air and demonstrated extremely compelling as a substance weapon in the channels and fox openings delved in World War One. Chlorine has been explicitly situated towards the top finish of the incandescent lamp as it holds a strikingly low nuclear number contrasted with different components that are additionally a piece of a similar gathering. In synopsis, Mendeleev and Seaborg basically position chlorine inside the incandescent light gathering because of its comparable attributes. The components remembered for the incandescent lamp bunch are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). Fluorine and chlorine, both have seven valence electrons in their external shell. That seven-electron quality applies to the entirety of the incandescent light. They are for the most part only one electron short of having full shells. The incandescent lamp have the attribute of consolidating with a wide range of components. They are receptive. You will frequently discover them holding with metals and components from Group One of the intermittent table. Fluorine is the most receptive of the incandescent light and reactivity diminishes as you descend the segment. In this way, Chlorine is the second generally responsive. As the nuclear number expands, the particles get greater. Their synthetic properties change only a modest quantity when contrasted with the component directly above them on the table. Chlorine shapes a negative particle by reason of a more prominent measure of electrons than protons. This iota has 17 protons and electrons. Because of the last unfilled electron shell, this component changes into a negative particle. In less complex terms, a negative particle contains one more electron than proton. In logical language, a negative particle is also called an anion. Chlorine is changed over into a particle once increasing an additional electron from an alternate component. This procedure is fundamental for making an ionic security. Chlorine’s particle is known to be amazingly dissolvable in water, in this way giving reasons concerning why it bonds with sodium, framing sodium chloride. The ionic bond that structures is estimated as far as valence, which means how much a component needs to bond with another component. To sum up, chlorine and sodium are an immediate case of an ionic bond that structures when two particles artificially connect together. The employments of chlorine in regular day to day existence are huge and keep on being utilized overall explicitly for keeping up a spotless pool condition and numerous utilizations as a cleaning operator.

Human Dignity in A Lesson Before Dying Essay -- Ernest J. Gaines

Human Dignity in A Lesson Before Dying  Award and Jefferson are on an excursion. In spite of the fact that they have limitlessly unique instructive foundations, their shared trait of being dark men who have lost expectation unites them in the quest for the significance of their lives. In the 1940’s little Cajun town of Bayonne, Louisiana, blacks may have lawfully been liberated, yet they were still subjugated by the prewar fantasy of the spot of dark individuals in the public arena. Customs built up during the long stretches of subjugation refuted the laws intended to give dark individuals equivalent rights and the chains of convention won leaving both Grant and Jefferson caught in mental subjection in their networks. The battles of Grant and Jefferson share a typical topic, man’s scan for importance. Award has the upside of an advanced degree, and keeping in mind that that may have given some edification, he stays in indistinguishable intersection from Jefferson. Award sees that paying little heed to what he does, the dark understudies he shows proceed in similar employments, a similar destitution and same slave-like situations as their progenitors. Award has no expectation of having any kind of effect and considers his to be as trivial. Despite the fact that Jefferson’s strife is progressively basic, it is equivalent to Grant’s battle. Jefferson is scanning for the most essential character, regardless of whether he is man or creature. It is this contention of importance and personality that unite Grant and Jefferson. In this book, Ernest J. Gaines presents three perspectives to decide masculinity: law, instruction and religion. Jefferson has been indicted for a wrongdoing, and however he didn't submit it, he is condemned to death as a hoard a word that prevents any sense from securing worth or section of nobility he may have had in a world managed by abusive white narrow minded people. Jefferson is at a significantly more prominent misfortune as he has no training and after the conviction he questions that God can even exist in a world that would send a blameless man to his demise. Obviously Jefferson doesn't accept he has any worth. ‘I’m an old hoard. Only an old hoard they filling out to execute for Christmas’ (83). Despite the fact that Grant may have had a few points of interest contrasted and Jefferson, his situation in life was not essentially better than Jefferson’s. Award realizes that on the off chance that he had been the dark man sitting in the court, he also would have been sentenced. In his amazing opening to the novel, Grant says, I was not there yet I was there... ...rong let them know im a man (234). Jefferson passed on with nobility and Grant came back to Bayonne accepting he could have any kind of effect. It isn't certain that religion, a faith in God, had the effect for both of them. Obviously as they battled with the issue of a more powerful, they discovered that the significance of their lives was not joined to the white man’s convictions and fantasies, but instead originated from inside themselves. As far as possible, the two of them battled with whether there was a God. As they end their excursion together, Jefferson finds a sense of contentment and turns into a saint in his locale. Despite the fact that Grant can't be a legend, he finds his place and comes back to the school building with new expectation and a dream for having any kind of effect, notwithstanding himself, for his understudies. He questions himself on occasion, yet he picks up assurance for his understudies. However they should accept. They should accept, if just to free the psyche, if not the body. Just when the brain is free has the body an opportunity to be free. Truly, they should accept. They should accept. Since I comprehend being a slave. I am a slave (Gaines 251) Works Cited Gaines, Ernest J. A Lesson Before Dying. New York: Vintage Books, 1993.

Mind sports Essay Example For Students

Brain sports Essay It appears to be practically similar to an interesting expression to consolidate the words psyche and game particularly when the game viable is chess. It is hard to picture the game as a game when the most physical movement it appears to require is moving the pieces no matter how you look at it. As of late, however, the Olympic board casted a ballot chess legitimate for rivalry in The Games. This affirmation of chess as a game by such a high board expects us to reevaluate our perspective on chess and sports. In spite of the fact that chess doesn't seem to require as much action as most conspicuous games, it requires so a lot, if not more, readiness and time. An examination done at Temple University found that chess channels vitality at a rate that thinks about to football. The absolute best chess players in history viewed athletic preparing as a fundamental piece of achievement in the game. Both Bobby Fischer and Garry Kasparov lifted loads. They utilized other physical molding metho ds also, not really for their wellbeing, but since of the measure of endurance the game requires at elevated levels of rivalry. It isn't extraordinary for an expert player to lose 10 to 15 pounds over the span of a match. Matches can keep going up to a month, with one game each day, eight hours each. More than 120 nations authoritatively think about chess as a game. The Unites States isn't one of them. That might be on the grounds that we appear to have an exceptionally extremist perspective on what precisely a game is. Inquire as to whether chess ought to be viewed as a game, and the most probable reaction will be insane giggling, yet a greater number of individuals play chess seriously than some other game on the planet, and a larger number of books have been distributed on chess than some other subject. The majority of those players and creators immovably accept that chess is more diligently to be acceptable at than some other game or game. The idea of chess as a game likely just never happened to a great many people. Playing in a chess competition is much the same as stepping through an examination that has not been read for yet that will choose something significant, then again, actually chess additionally has the additional issue of time. Envision taking that test with a period limit, similar to the SATs for instance, yet that the clock that is keeping the time emits a black out ticking sound. In a huge room that is totally quiet the main thing discernible will be that clamor, it is very harrowing for any unpracticed competition player. It has likewise been known to drive a few experts to the edge of madness.Most individuals who don't think about chess as a game either dont play, or are only uninformed of the realities. It is difficult to see exactly how troublesome the game truly is if competition play has never been experienced. To numerous individuals chess will never be viewed as a game, however regardless of whether they did, it would probably not change the ordinarily held perspective on chess players, that of geeks and untouchables with nothing better to do.

Nuclear Power Plants In U.S. - Free Essay Example

Nuclear Energy is produced when Uranium atoms are split in a process called nuclear fission. ( Ballish 2015) Vast amounts of energy is released and generates heat. Nuclear Power Plants harness this energy and create electricity.Nuclear Power plants heat water to produce steam. The steam is used to spin large turbines that generate electricity (eia.gov 2018). There are two types of Nuclear Plants in the United States.One is called the Pressurized Water Reactor and the other is called the Boiling Water Reactor (Ballish 2015).The USA is the worlds largest producer of nuclear power, accounting for more than 30% of worldwide nuclear generation of electricity ( worldnuclear.org 2018).104 power reactors are operating in the United States with a total capacity of 102,100 MWe (Ristinen, 2016). Four to Six new units may come online by 2020   (Ristinen,2016).It costs less to generate nuclear energy than it does to generate energy from fossil fuels (Ballish 2015)Nuclear Fission creates more energy then burning fossil fuels (Ballish 2015).Reactors are not affected by the availability of fossil fuels (Ristinen, 2016). Reactors also do not emit CO2, SO2, CO, or particulates into the atmosphere (Ristinen, 2016).Nuclear waste is a by product from Nuclear Plants. This waste can be harmful to humans and the environment if not properly disposed of. This waste can remain active and dangerous to human health for thousands of years (eia.gov 2018).The United States does not have a permanent disposal facility for high- level   nuclear waste (eia.gov 2018). This is alarming since the United States is the largest producer of nuclear energy.Accidents can happen at anytime due to human error or natural disasters.This was the case in Japan when a Tsunami struck the Fukushima Plant. The cost of building a nuclear plant is extremely high (Ballish 2015).Nuclear Energy brings fear along with it. The fear of a disaster happening is a reality that humans have to face. History has shown us that these disasters can happen and leave devastating effects.   The Chernobyl, Fukushima, and Three Mile Island disasters are among the most disastrous.On April 26th, 1986 a reactor at Chernobyl exploded that sent radioactive clouds into the air. The radiation effected the surrounding area dramatically (Burns 2018).Chernobyl is the site of the worlds worst nuclear disaster ( Burns 2018). Four thousand cancer deaths since that day can be attributed to the radiation from Chernobyl (Materese 2018).In 2011 there was a earthquake in Japan that caused a massive Tsunami to hit the Fukushima plant. The cooling system failed due to power outages and   one of the nuclear units exploded which caused major radiation to be leaked into the ocean (Tang 2015).This was a tragic event for Japan and soon after, all fifthy of their plants were set offline (Tang 2015).This event impacted the United States and changed the way we oversee Nuclear Plants.It occurred in Pennsylvania 1979, when there was a partial meltdown at Three Mile Island Unit 2 (Liu 2015). It was the worst nuclear power plant accident in the United States history (Mangano 2004).

Rite Of Passage Among The Gaanda And American Society - Free Essay Example

Rite of passage among Gaanda and the United State share similar sacrifices but differ in their significance to each culture. Gaanda and the United States recognize the importance of cultural rituals in aiding their young children in their transition to adulthood. Both cultures commence their coming to age rituals at a young age for example, in Gaanda, girls begin their initiation ordeal at the age of six while in the United States their transition begin from the age of five years old as they embark in their education. In both cultures, their transition to adulthood require commitment, time, and undergoing some form of pain. As mentioned earlier, the culture of Gaanda regard pain to be necessary for the transition to adulthood as it prepares the young for responsibilities and hardships that are part of their upcoming status as adults. Their commitment to their society is shown by enduring physical and psychological pain extensively for well over a decade. Similarly, young children in the United States undergo psychological pain such as stress throughout their academic life and their commitment is demonstrated through their perseverance in completing their college education. As their transition comes to an end, both cultures celebrate their commitment in a ceremonial process that contain certain rituals such as specific dress and activities. For examples, in Gaanda, the community held Yowo for girls who completed Hleeta. In this ceremony, the girls wear a traditional garment called takerkert that closely resembles a woven cloth apron in western culture. In the United States, graduation ceremonies also consist of wearing traditional dress known as cap and gowns and turning their cap tassels as symbol of transition to professionals. Additionally, in both societies respect is given to those individuals who complete their rite of passage as they value their commitment to their culture. While the rite of passage in both cultures share similar experiences, they differ in the significance as each culture embrace different values. In Gaanda, Hleeta is not only a marker that establishes an individuals identity within the community but also a tradition that fortifies the culture as a whole. Hleeta plays a central part in consolidating communities as these marking carry the same symbolic significance across all subgroups of Gaanda. This process, therefore, helps consolidate disperse communities as women from different subgroups can marry outside their community and thus help connect disperse communities. By continuing this process of scarification, young girls reinforce the communitys culture and values as they help preserve the tradition throughout generations. In contrast, the significance behind Americans rite of passage is to help students become independent individuals rather than members of a close-knitted community.  Ã‚   Americans believe that education plays an important role in individualism as it helps them develop knowledge, maturity and responsibility. Respectably, their personal growth and prosperity in life will be a result of their own efforts rather than through the help of others. In conclusion, rite of passage among the Gaanda and American society share a common believe that pain is necessary in the transition to adulthood, however, differ in their significance as each culture embraces different values. In Gaanda, Hleeta is used to help prepare young girls in their transition to womanhood and marriage by helping them develop physical and mental fortitude. In the Unites States, the psychosocial pain of stress found when receiving an education helps students mentally prepare for all the responsibilities and challenges that adults face as professionals in the working world. While their rituals differ, both cultures help their young children become successful members of society as both rite of passage rituals inculcate skills, knowledge and fortitude necessary to endure all the challenges that accompany adulthood.

Harriet Jacobs Biography, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl

Harriet Jacobs (February 11, 1813-March 7, 1897), who was born into slavery, endured sexual abuse for years before successfully escaping to the North. She later wrote about her experiences in the 1861 book Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, one of the few slave narratives written by a black woman. Jacobs later became an abolitionist speaker, educator, and social worker. Fast Facts: Harriet Jacobs Known For: Escaped slavery and wrote Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861), the first female fugitive slave narrative in the U.S.Born: February 11, 1813, in Edenton, North CarolinaDied: March 7, 1897, in Washington, D.C.Parents: Elijah Knox and Delilah HorniblowChildren: Louisa Matilda Jacobs, Joseph JacobsNotable Quote: I am well aware that many will accuse me of indecorum for presenting these pages to the public, but the public ought to be made acquainted with [slavery’s] monstrous features, and I willingly take the responsibility of presenting them with the veil withdrawn.† Early Years: Life in Slavery Harriet Jacobs was born into slavery in Edenton, North Carolina, in 1813. Her father, Elijah Knox, was an enslaved biracial house carpenter owned by Andrew Knox. Her mother, Delilah Horniblow, was an enslaved black woman owned by a local tavern owner. Due to laws at the time, a mother’s status as â€Å"free† or â€Å"enslaved† was passed onto their children. Therefore, both Harriet and her brother John were enslaved at birth. After her mother’s death, Harriet lived with her mother’s mistress, Margaret Horniblow, who taught her to sew, read, and write. Harriet had hopes of being freed after Horniblow’s death. Instead, she was sent to live with the family of Dr. James Norcom. She was barely a teenager before her new owner, Norcom, sexually harassed her and threatened to make her his concubine. She endured psychological and sexual abuse for years. After Norcom forbid Jacobs from marrying a free black carpenter, she entered into a consensual relationship with a white neighbor, Samuel Tredwell Sawyer, with whom she had two children (Joseph and Louise Matilda). â€Å"I knew what I did, Jacobs later wrote about her relationship with Sawyer, and I did it with deliberate calculation†¦There is something akin to freedom in having a lover who has no control over you.† She had hoped that her relationship with Sawyer would offer her some protection. Escaping Slavery When Norcom found out about Jacobs’ relationship with Sawyer, he became violent towards her. Because Norcom still owned Jacobs, her children became his property. He threatened to sell her children and raise them as plantation slaves if she refused his sexual advances. If Jacobs fled, the children would remain with their grandmother, living in better conditions. Partly to protect her children from Norcom, Jacobs plotted her escape. She later wrote, â€Å"Whatever slavery might do to me, it could not shackle my children. If I fell a sacrifice, my little ones were saved.† For nearly seven years, Jacobs hid in her grandmother’s gloomy attic, a small room that was only nine feet long, seven feet wide, and three feet tall. From that tiny crawl space, she secretly watched her children grow up through a small crack in the wall. Norcom posted a runaway notice for Jacobs, offering a $100 reward for her capture. In the posting, Norcom ironically stated that this girl absconded from the plantation of my son without any known cause or provocation. In June 1842, a boat captain smuggled Jacobs north to Philadelphia for a price. She then moved on to New York, where she worked as a nurse for the writer Nathaniel Parker Willis. Later, Willis second wife paid Norcoms son-in-law $300 for Jacobs freedom. Sawyer purchased their two children from Norcom, but refused to set them free. Unable to reunite with her children, Jacobs reconnected with her brother John, also a fugitive slave, in New York. Harriet and John Jacobs became part of New Yorks abolitionist movement. They met Frederick Douglass. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl An abolitionist named Amy Post urged Jacobs to tell her life story to help those still in bondage, particularly women.  Though Jacobs had learned to read during her enslavement, she had never mastered writing. She began to teach herself how to write, publishing several anonymous letters to the New York Tribune, with Amy Post’s help. Jacobs eventually finished the manuscript, titled Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. The publication made Jacobs the first woman to author a fugitive slave narrative in the U.S. Prominent white abolitionist Lydia Maria Child helped Jacobs edit and publish her book in 1861. However, Child asserted that she did little to change the text, saying â€Å"I dont think I altered 50 words in the whole volume. Jacobs’ autobiography was â€Å"written by herself,† as the subtitle to her book states. The subject matter of the text, including sexual abuse and harassment of enslaved women, was controversial and taboo at the time. Some of her published letters in the New York Tribune shocked readers. Jacobs wrestled with the difficulty of exposing her past, later deciding to publish the book under a pseudonym (Linda Brent) and giving fictitious names to people in the narrative. Her story became one of the first open discussions about sexual harassment and abuse endured by slave women. Later Years After the Civil War, Jacobs reunited with her children. In her later years, she devoted her life to distributing relief supplies, teaching, and providing health care as a social worker. She eventually returned to her childhood home in Edenton, North Carolina, to help support the recently freed slaves of her hometown. She died in 1897 in Washington, D.C., and was buried next to her brother John in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Legacy Jacobs’ book, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, made an impact in the abolitionist community at the time. However, it was forgotten by history in the wake of the Civil War. The scholar Jean Fagan Yellin later rediscovered the book. Struck by the fact that it had been written by a formerly enslaved woman, Yellin championed Jacobs work. The book was reprinted in 1973. Today, Jacobs’ story is commonly taught in schools alongside other influential slave narratives, including Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave and Running a Thousand Miles for Freedom, by William and Ellen Craft. Together, these narratives not only vividly portray the evils of slavery, but also display the courage and resilience of enslaved men and women. Anthony Nittle contributed to this article. He teaches high school English for the Los Angeles Unified School District and has a masters degree in education from California State University, Dominguez Hills. Sources â€Å"About Harriet Jacobs Biography.† Historic Edenton State Historic Site, Edenton, NC. Andrews, William L. â€Å"Harriet A. Jacobs (Harriet Ann), 1813-1897.† Documenting the American South, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2019. â€Å"Harriet Jacobs.† PBS Online, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), 2019. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Africans in America, PBS Online, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), 1861. Jacobs, Harriet A. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987. Reynolds, David S. â€Å"To Be a Slave.† The New York Times, July 11, 2004. Runaway notice for Harriet Jacobs. PBS Online, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), 1835. Yellin, Jean Fagan. The Harriet Jacobs Family Papers. The University of North Carolina Press, November 2008, Chapel Hill, NC.

George Washingtons First Cabinet

The United States President’s cabinet consists of the heads of each of the executive departments, along with the vice president. Its role is to advise the president on the issues related to each of the departments. While Article II, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution sets up the ability of the president to select the heads of the executive departments, it was President George Washington who established the â€Å"Cabinet† as his group of advisers who reported in private and solely to the U.S. chief executive officer.  Washington also set the standards for each Cabinet member’s roles and how each would interact with the president. George Washington’s First Cabinet In the first year of George Washington’s presidency, only three executive departments were established: the Departments of State, Treasury, and War. Washington selected secretaries for each of these positions. His choices were Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton, and Secretary of War Henry Knox. While the Department of Justice would not be created until 1870, Washington appointed and included Attorney General Edmund Randolph to serve in his first cabinet. Although the United States Constitution does not expressly provide for a Cabinet, Article II, Section 2, Clause 1 states that the president â€Å"may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices.†Ã‚  Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 states that the president â€Å"with the advice and consent of the Senate†¦shall appoint†¦all other officers of the United States.† Judiciary Act of 1789 On April 30, 1789, Washington took the oath of office as America’s first president.  It was not until almost five months later, on Sept. 24, 1789, that Washington signed into law the Judiciary Act of 1789, which not only established the office of the U.S. attorney general but also established a three-part judicial system consisting of: The Supreme Court (which at the time consisted of only a Chief Justice and five Associate Justices).The U.S. District Courts, which heard mainly admiralty and maritime cases.The U.S. Circuit Courts, which were the primary federal trial courts but also exercised very limited appellate jurisdiction. This Act granted the Supreme Court the jurisdiction to hear appeals of decisions that were rendered by the highest court from each of the individual states when the decision addressed constitutional issues that interpreted both federal and state laws.  This provision of the act proved to be extremely controversial, especially among those who favored states rights. Cabinet Nominations Washington waited until September to form his first cabinet. The four positions were quickly filled in only 15 days. He hoped to balance out the nominations by choosing members from different regions of the newly formed United States. Alexander Hamilton (1787–1804) was appointed and quickly approved by the Senate as the first secretary of the treasury on Sept. 11, 1789. Hamilton would continue to serve in that position until January 1795. He would have a profound impact on the early economic development of the United States. On Sept. 12, 1789, Washington appointed Henry Knox (1750–1806) to oversee the U.S. Department of War.  Knox was a Revolutionary War hero who had served side-by-side with Washington. Knox would also continue in his role until January 1795. He was instrumental in the creation of the United States Navy. On Sept. 26, 1789, Washington made the last two appointments to his Cabinet, Edmund Randolph (1753–1813) as attorney general and Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) as secretary of state. Randolph had been a delegate to the Constitutional Convention and had introduced the Virginia Plan for the creation of a bicameral legislature. Jefferson was a key founding father who had been the central author of the Declaration of Independence. He had also been a member of the first Congress under the Articles of Confederation and had served as a minister to France for the new nation. In contrast to having only four ministers, in 2019 the President’s Cabinet consists of 16 members which include the vice president. However, Vice President John Adams never attended a single one of President Washington’s Cabinet meetings. Although Washington and Adams were both federalists and each played very vital roles in the success of the colonists during the Revolutionary War, they hardly ever interacted in their positions as president and vice president.  Although President Washington is known as being a great administrator, he seldom ever consulted Adams on any issues—which caused Adams to write that the office of vice president was the â€Å"most insignificant office that ever the invention of man contrived or his imagination conceived.† Issues Facing Washington’s Cabinet President Washington held his first cabinet meeting on Feb. 25, 1793. James Madison coined the term cabinet for this meeting of the executive department heads. Washington’s cabinet meetings soon became quite acrimonious, with Jefferson and Hamilton taking opposite positions over the issue of a national bank that was part of Hamilton’s financial plan. Hamilton had created a financial plan to deal with the major economic issues that had arisen since the end of the Revolutionary War. At that time, the federal government was in debt in the amount of $54 million (which included interest), and the states collectively owed an additional $25 million. Hamilton felt that the federal government should take over the states’ debts. To pay for these combined debts, he proposed the issuance of bonds that people could buy, which would pay interest over time. In addition, he called for the creation of a central bank to create a more stable currency. While northern merchants and traders mostly approved of Hamilton’s plan, southern farmers, including Jefferson and Madison, vehemently opposed it. Washington privately supported Hamiltons plan believing that it would give much needed financial support to the new nation. Jefferson, however, was instrumental in creating a compromise whereby he would convince the Southern-based Congressmen to support Hamilton’s financial plan in exchange for moving the U.S. Capital city from Philadelphia to a Southern location. President Washington would help choose its location on the Potomac River due to its proximity to Washington’s Mount Vernon estate. This would later be known as Washington, D.C. which has been the nation’s capital ever since. As a side note, Thomas Jefferson was the very first president to be inaugurated in Washington, D.C., in March 1801, which at the time was a swampy location near the Potomac with a population that numbered around 5,000 people. Sources Borrelli, MaryAnne. The Presidents Cabinet: Gender, Power, and Representation. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.  Cohen, Jeffrey E. The Politics of the U.S. Cabinet: Representation in the Executive Branch, 1789–1984. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1988.Hinsdale, Mary Louise. A History of the Presidents Cabinet. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Historical Studies, 1911.